A collaboration between

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

Funding provided by:

Guidelines and Webpage Design:

Daniel Geisseler, Ph.D.; UCCE Specialist in Nutrient Management; Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis

Reviewers:

Bruce Roberts, Ph.D.; Professor and James G. Boswell Endowed Chair of Agronomy; Department of Plant Science, California State University, Fresno

G. Stuart Pettygrove, Ph.D.; Soils Specialist; Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis

William R. Horwath, Ph.D.; Professor of Soil Biogeochemistry and James G. Boswell Endowed Chair in Soil Science; Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California, Davis

Support:

Asif Maan, Ph.D.; Branch Chief Feed, Fertilizer, and Livestock Drugs Regulatory Services, California Department of Food and Agriculture

Amrith Gunasekara, Ph.D.; Science Advisor to the Secretary; California Department of Food and Agriculture

Erika Lewis; Fertilizer Research and Education Program, California Department of Food and Agriculture

Last Update: September, 2015

Additional Information:

Cotton Nitrogen Uptake and Partitioning

Cotton Production in California

California Fertilization Guidelines

Cotton

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Preplant

Sowing

First
Square

First White
Bloom

Peak
Bloom

First
Open Boll

Petiole analyses are used to monitor the N status of cotton after the first squares stage. A representative sample of 30 to 40 petioles should be collected at random. Generally, the petiole that is third to fifth from the terminal on the main stem is selected. This petiole should have a fully expanded leaf blade ^{[N2, N24]}. Samples should be sent to the laboratory immediately or dried without delay. For more information on sampling procedure see Plant Tissue Sampling.

Petiole nitrate levels need to be interpreted with care because they not only depend on N availability, but also on variety, growth stage, soil type, weather, and insect damage ^[N10]. The concentration of nitrate in petioles generally declines rapidly after first bloom. Taking petiole samples at first bloom, peak bloom, and at first open boll to monitor the change in petiole nitrate over time may help to overcome the confounding effects of variety and soil type ^[N2].

The following target cotton petiole nitrate levels have been proposed for California and Arizona ^{[N2, N28]}:
Petiole N levels

Nitrate concentrations in petioles are slightly higher early in the morning. The values should be adjusted down by 10% when petioles are sampled before 7 a.m., and by 5% when sampled between 7 and 8 a.m. ^[N31].

The nitrate level should fall below 2000 ppm nitrate-N late in the season for best defoliation and harvestability ^[N2]. The results of late-season petiole analyses may be known too late to make corrections for the current crop. However, they can be used to evaluate the fertilization program and make corrections for the following year.

Preplant N

Starter N

Starter Nitrogen

Starter fertilizers are an effective way of providing sufficient N and phosphorus to young plants. Starter fertilizer strengthen the root system and encourage early rapid growth necessary to compete with weeds ^[N7]. However, these beneficial effects do not always translate into higher yields ^{[N3, N13, N29]}. Starter fertilizer are most beneficial when cool weather slows down germination and early plant growth or in soils that fix P or K ^{[N3, N21]}. Under conditions, where starter fertilizer has a positive effect, a yield increase of up to 10% may be achieved ^{[N13, N32]}.

Application Rate

Mode of Application

Fertilizer Type

Sidedress N

Application Rate

In a FREP-supported study carried out in the San Joaquin Valley between 1996 and 2000, Hutmacher and collaborators found that about 1300 lbs lint/acre can be produced with 180 to 200 lbs available N per acre ^[N15]. The available N includes residual soil nitrate–N in the top 2 feet of the profile and that applied with fertilizers. Their study showed that the residual nitrate–N level in spring can be fully subtracted from the crop N requirements to determine the amount of fertilizer N that needs to be applied. These findings are in line with field trials carried out at the University of California West Side Field Station, where lint yield did not respond to N fertilization when the amount of residual nitrate-N in the top three feet of the soil exceeded 200-225 lbs/acre ^[N36].

The N requirement of cotton strongly depends on the yield target. The N fertilization rates for different cotton yield levels grown in soils with nitrate-N levels below 50 lbs/acre are listed below ^[N31]. Approaches to determine a realistic yield goal are discussed here.

Nitrogen application rates based on expected yield. The rates in the table need to be corrected for residual soil N ^[N31]. N application
rate based on expected yield

Another factor that needs to be considered is the type of cotton grown. In general, N application rates to Pima cotton are lower compared to Acala cotton due to slightly lower yields and the sensitivity of Pima cotton to excess N ^[N26]. A 2-year study in the San Joaquin Valley found no increase in Pima cotton yield when available N (residual soil nitrate-N plus fertilizer N) exceeded 150 lbs/acre ^{[N8, N23]}. Contact your local farm advisor for more information.

The optimal fertilizer rate also depends on the fertilizer application costs relative to the price of cotton. The maximum yield is generally not the most profitable yield, as the yield increase diminishes with each additional pound of N added. Therefore, the economically optimal yield may be considerably below the maximum yield. A discussion about the economically optimal yield can be found here.

Mode of Application

Fertilizer Type

Time of Application

Foliar N

Phosphorus (P₂O₅)

Soil Test

Soil Analysis

Soil Sampling

Soil samples should be taken in spring from the first or second foot of soil (see Soil Test Sampling Instructions). In California, plant available P is generally determined by extracting soil samples with sodium bicarbonate (Olsen-P). Olsen-P concentrations of less than 3-5 ppm are considered low and a yield response to fertilizer P is likely ^{[P17, P21, P25]}. In contrast, when the concentration is higher than 8 ppm, a yield response is unlikely (see Table).

Interpretation of soil test values.
Soil P Test values

Soil Test Based Application Rate

When the soil P test level is high, a small starter application may be considered when the growth conditions are suboptimal (e.g. cool weather conditions).

When the Olsen-P test indicates moderate P availability, the main goal of P fertilization is to maintain the current level of P availability by replacing the P removed from the field with seeds and lint, which ranges from 9 to 22 lbs P/acre (20-50 lbs P₂O₅/acre) for high-yielding cotton ^{[P7,
P10, P22]}. These amounts are in line with several studies, where application rates ranging from 20 to 60 lbs P₂O₅/acre were reported ^{[P3, P4, P11]}.

The P contents in the aboveground biomass ranges from 18 to 40 lbs P/acre (40-90 lbs P₂O₅/acre) ^{[P7, P10, P22]}. This amount of P may be applied when the P soil test indicates low P availability. By applying more P than is removed at harvest, the soil P test level should increase over the years, reaching the intermediate level. Contact your local farm advisor for more information.

Petiole Analysis

Preplant P

Starter P

Starter Phosphorus

Starter fertilizers are an effective way of providing early nutrients. Starter fertilizer may strengthen the root system and encourage early rapid growth to compete with weeds ^{[P8, P18]}. However, these advantages do not always translate into higher yields ^{[P3, P11, P23,
P26]}. Starter fertilizer may be most beneficial in years where cool weather after planting slows down germination and early plant growth or in soils that fix P ^{[P3, P16]}. In contrast, in soils with very high soil test P levels, starter P application may not have an effect on cotton yield and growth ^[P4].

Under conditions, where starter fertilizer has a positive effect, a yield increase of up to 10% may realistically be expected ^{[P11,
P25]}.

Application Rate

Mode of Application

Fertilizer Type

Sidedress P

Foliar P

Potassium (K₂O)

Soil Test

Petiole Analysis

Preplant K

Preplant / Starter K

Application Rate

The amount of K removed at harvest with lint and seeds ranges from 35 to 60 lbs K/acre (40-70 lbs K₂O/acre) for high-yielding cotton ^{[K9,
K10, K22]}. The K in the aboveground biomass is considerably larger, ranging from 160 to 220 lbs K/acre (190-270 lbs K₂O/acre) ^{[K7,
K9, K10]}.

Based on soil test results, the following K application rates have been recommended ^[K18]:

Mode of Application

Potassium fertilizer is most often broadcast before discing and bedding up or banded on the shoulder of the bed to a depth of 6 to 8 inches ^[K17]. As the cotton root system in the surface soil is weak, it is important to incorporate the fertilizer ^[K12]. In soils with a high K fixation potential, a band application, 6 to 8 inches deep, may be more efficient than a broadcast application, as the contact with soil minerals is reduced ^[K13].

Fertilizer Type

Both, muriate of potash (KCl; potassium chloride) and sulfate of potash (K₂SO₄; potassium sulfate) can be applied to cotton. Muriate of potash is most often used, as it is cheaper and cotton is tolerant to chlorine ^[K25].

Time of Application

Potassium is most often added preplant. In sandy soils with a low cation exchange capacity, multiple annual applications may be required, as K can be leached. Split applications may also be beneficial in soils that tend to fix K.

Cotton tends to be more sensitive to low K availability than most other major field crops due to its relatively low root density ^[K19]. Therefore, when cotton is grown in rotation with other crops, and K is not applied on an annual basis, it is recommended to apply K before cotton.

References:

Nitrogen

Bassett, D.M., Anderson, W.D., Werkhoven, C.H.E., 1970. Dry matter production and nutrient uptake in irrigated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Agronomy Journal 62, 299-303.
Bassett, D.M., MacKenzie, A.J., 1976. Plant analysis as a guide to cotton fertilization. In: Reisenauer, H.M. (Ed.) Soil and Plant-Tissue Testing in California. University of California Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1879. pp. 16-17.
Bednarz, C.W., Harris, G.H., Shurley, W.D., 2000. Agronomic and economic analyses of cotton starter fertilizers. Agronomy Journal 92, 766-771.
Cahill, S., Johnson, A., Osmond, D., Hardy, D., 2008. Response of corn and cotton to starter phosphorus on soils testing very high in phosphorus. Agronomy Journal 100, 537-542.
California Plant Health Association, 2002. Western Fertilizer Handbook 9^th edition. Interstate Publishers, Inc.
Constable, G.A., Rochester, I.J., 1988. Nitrogen application to cotton on clay soil: timing and soil testing. Agronomy Journal 80, 498-502.
Extension Cotton Team, 2012. 2012 Georgia cotton production guide.
Fritschi, F.B., Roberts, B.A., Travis, R.L., Rains, D.W., Hutmacher, R.B., 2003. Response of irrigated Acala and Pima cotton to nitrogen fertilization: growth, dry matter partitioning, and yield. Agronomy Journal 95, 133-146.
Fritschi, F.B., Roberts, B.A., Travis, R.L., Rains, D.W., Hutmacher, R.B., 2004. Seasonal nitrogen concentration, uptake, and partitioning pattern of irrigated Acala and Pima cotton as influenced by nitrogen fertility level. Crop Science 44, 516-527.
Gerik, T.J., Oosterhuis, D.M., Torbert, H.A., 1998. Managing cotton nitrogen supply. Advances in Agronomy 64,115-147.
Godfrey, L.D., Hutmacher, R.B., 2001. Interaction of cotton nitrogen fertility practices and cotton aphid population dynamics in California cotton. FREP Final Report.
Guthrie, D.S., 1991. Cotton response to starter fertilizer placement and planting dates. Agronomy Journal 83, 336-839.
Hutchinson, R.L., Howard, D.D., 1997. Response of no‐tillage and conventional‐tillage cotton to starter fertilization on loess soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition 20, 975-986.
Hutmacher, R.B., 2012. California cotton: split or don't split nitrogen?
Hutmacher, R.B., Travis, R.L., Rains, D.W., Vargas, R.N., Roberts, B.A., Weir, B.L., Wright, S.D., Munk, D.S., Marsh, B.H., Keeley, M.P., Fritschi, F.B., Munier, D.J., Nichols, R.L., Delgado, R., 2004. Response of recent Acala cotton varieties to variable nitrogen rates in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Agronomy Journal 96, 48-62.
Hutmacher, R.B., Travis, R.L., Roberts, B.A., Keeley, M.P., Delgado, R., 2005. Residual soil nitrogen and nitrogen management for Acala cotton. FREP Final Report.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996c. Preplant-spring. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 15-20.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996d. Prebloom decisions. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 29-50.

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Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996e. Early to mid-bloom decisions. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 51-63.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996f. Mid- to late-bloom decisions. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 64-72.
Maples, R.J., and J.L. Keogh, 1973. Phosphorus fertilization experiments with cotton on Delta soils of Arkansas. Arkansas Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 781.
Oosterhuis, D.M., Hake, K., Burmester, C., 1991. Foliar feeding cotton. Cotton Physiology Today 2, 1-8.
Rains, W., Travis, R.L., Hutmacher, R., 2001. Nitrogen budget in California cotton cropping systems. FREP Final Report.
Reddy, K.R., Hodges, H.F., Varco, J., 2000. Potassium nutrition of cotton. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Bulletin 1049.
Roberts, R.K., Kenty, M.M., Thomas, J.M., Howard, D.D., 2006. Economic evaluation of soil and foliar applied nitrogen fertilization programs for cotton production. The Journal of Cotton Science 10, 193-200.
Silvertooth, J.C., 2001. Agronomic guidelines for Pima cotton production in Arizona. University of Arizona Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1242.
Silvertooth, J.C., Edmisten, K.L., McCarthy, W.H., 1999. Production practices. In: Smith, C.W., Cothren, J.T. (Eds.) Cotton - Origin, History, Technology, and Production. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 451-488.
Silvertooth, J.C., Norton, E.R., 2011. Management of fertilizer nitrogen in Arizona cotton production. University of Arizona Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1243.
Stewart, A.M., Edmisten, K. L., 1998. Cotton response to placement and rate of starter fertilizer. Journal of Plant Nutrition 21, 967-973.
Touchton, J.T., Ricker, D.H., Burmester, C.H., Reeves, D.W., 1986. Starter fertilizer combinations and placement for conventional and no-tillage cotton. Journal of Fertilizer Issues 3, 91-98.
Weir, B.L., Kerby, T.A., Hake, K.D., Roberts, B.A., Zelinski, L.J., 1996. Cotton fertility. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 210-227.
Weir, B., Miller, R., Hutmacher, R.B., Hufaker, R., Travis, R., Vargas, R., Munk, D., Wright, S., Roberts, B., Munier, D., 1997. Establishing updated guidelines for cotton nutrition. FREP Final Report.
Wiedenfeld, B., Wallace, B.W., Hons, F., 2009. Indicators of cotton nitrogen status. Journal of Plant Nutrition 32, 1353-1370.
Yang, G., Tang, H., Nie, Y., Zhang, X., 2011. Responses of cotton growth, yield, and biomass to nitrogen split application ratio. European Journal of Agronomy 35, 164-170.
Yang, G., Tang, H., Tong, J., Nie, Y., Zhang, X., 2012. Effect of fertilization frequency on cotton yield and biomass accumulation. Field Crops Research 125, 161-166.
Zelinski, L.J., 1985. Development of a soil nitrogen test for cotton. Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Production Research Conference, New Orleans, LA. National Cotton Council of America. pp. 304-306.

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Phosphorus

Bassett, D.M., MacKenzie, A.J., 1976. Plant analysis as a guide to cotton fertilization. In: Reisenauer, H.M. (Ed.) Soil and Plant-Tissue Testing in California. University of California Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1879. pp. 16-17.
Bednarz, C.W., Hopper, N.W., and Hickey, M.G., 1999. Effects of foliar fertilization of Texas southern high plains cotton: Leaf phosphorus, potassium, zinc, iron, manganese, boron, calcium, and yield distribution, Journal of Plant Nutrition 22, 863-875.
Bednarz, C.W., Harris, G.H., Shurley, W.D., 2000. Agronomic and economic analyses of cotton starter fertilizers. Agronomy Journal 92, 766-771.
Cahill, S., Johnson, A., Osmond, D., Hardy, D., 2008. Response of corn and cotton to starter phosphorus on soils testing very high in phosphorus. Agronomy Journal 100, 537-542.
Cassman, K. G. 1993. Cotton. In Bennett, W. F. (Ed.) Nutrient Deficiencies and Toxicities in Crop Plants. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. pp. 111-119.
Cooper, H.P., 1940. Nutritional deficiency symptoms in cotton. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 4, 322-324.
Dorahy, C.G., Rochester, I.J., and Blair, G.J., 2004. Response of field-grown cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) to phosphorus fertilization on alkaline soils in eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 42, 913-920.
Extension Cotton Team, 2012. 2012 Georgia cotton production guide.
Guthrie, D.S., 1991. Cotton response to starter fertilizer placement and planting dates. Agronomy Journal 83, 336-839.
Halevy J., 1976. Growth rate and nutrient uptake of two cotton cultivars grown under irrigation. Agronomy Journal 68, 701-705.
Hutchinson, R.L., Howard, D.D., 1997. Response of no‐tillage and conventional‐tillage cotton to starter fertilization on loess soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition 20, 975-986.
Johnson Hake S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996a. Postharvest-Fall. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. p. 1-5.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake, K.D., Kerby, T.A., 1996b. Preparation for the new crop season - fall/winter. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 6-14.

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Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996c. Preplant-spring. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 15-20.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996d. Prebloom decisions. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 29-50.
Maples, R.J., and J.L. Keogh, 1973. Phosphorus fertilization experiments with cotton on Delta soils of Arkansas. Arkansas Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 781.
Mikkelsen D.S., 1955. Cotton phosphate fertilization: New soil test provides reliable and easily applied diagnostic guide to quantity of available phosphate. California Agriculture 9, 7-15.
Mullins, G.L., 1993. Cotton root growth as affected by P fertilizer placement. Fertilizer Research 34, 23-26.
Norton, E.R. and Silvertooth, J.C., 2006. A review of 10 years of phosphorus fertility research in Arizona. 2006 Beltwide Cotton Conferences, 2171-2175.
Reddy, K.R., Hodges, H.F., Varco, J., 2000. Potassium nutrition of cotton. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Bulletin 1049.
Reisenauer, H.M., Quick, J., Voss, R.E., 1976. Soil test interpretive guides. In: Reisenauer, H.M. (Ed.) Soil and Plant-Tissue Testing in California. University of California Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1879. pp. 38-40.
Rochester, I.J., 2010. Phosphorus and potassium nutrition of cotton: interaction with sodium. Crop and Pasture Science 61, 825-834.
Stewart, A.M., Edmisten, K. L., 1998. Cotton response to placement and rate of starter fertilizer. Journal of Plant Nutrition 21, 967-973.
Touchton, J.T., Ricker, D.H., Burmester, C.H., Reeves, D.W., 1986. Starter fertilizer combinations and placement for conventional and no-tillage cotton. Journal of Fertilizer Issues 3, 91-98.
Weir, B.L., Kerby, T.A., Hake, K.D., Roberts, B.A., Zelinski, L.J., 1996. Cotton fertility. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 210-227.
Zelinski, L.J., 1985. Development of a soil nitrogen test for cotton. Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Production Research Conference, New Orleans, LA. National Cotton Council of America. pp. 304-306.

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Potassium

Bassett, D.M., Anderson, W.D., Werkhoven, C.H.E., 1970. Dry matter production and nutrient uptake in irrigated cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Agronomy Journal 62, 299-303.
Bassett, D.M., MacKenzie, A.J., 1976. Plant analysis as a guide to cotton fertilization. In: Reisenauer, H.M. (Ed.) Soil and Plant-Tissue Testing in California. University of California Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1879. pp. 16-17.
Bednarz, C.W., Harris, G.H., Shurley, W.D., 2000. Agronomic and economic analyses of cotton starter fertilizers. Agronomy Journal 92, 766-771.
California Plant Health Association, 2002. Western Fertilizer Handbook 9^th edition. Interstate Publishers, Inc.
Cassman, K.G., Kerby, T.A., Roberts, B.A., Bryant, D.C., Higashi, S.L., 1990. Potassium nutrition effects on lint yield and fiber quality of Acala cotton. Crop Science 30, 672-677.
Cooper, H.P., 1940. Nutritional deficiency symptoms in cotton. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America 4, 322-324.
Dong, H., Kong, X., Li, W., Tang, W., Zhang, D., 2010. Effects of plant density and nitrogen and potassium fertilization on cotton yield and uptake of major nutrients in two fields with varying fertility. Field Crops Research 119, 106-113.
Guthrie, D.S., 1991. Cotton response to starter fertilizer placement and planting dates. Agronomy Journal 83, 336-839.
Halevy J., 1976. Growth rate and nutrient uptake of two cotton cultivars grown under irrigation. Agronomy Journal 68, 701-705.
Halevy, J., Marani, A., Markovitz, T. 1987. Growth and NPK uptake of high-yielding cotton grown at different nitrogen levels in a permanent-plot experiment. Plant and Soil 103, 39-44.
Hutchinson, R.L., Howard, D.D., 1997. Response of no‐tillage and conventional‐tillage cotton to starter fertilization on loess soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition 20, 975-986.
Hutmacher, R.B., Keeley, M.P., Davis, K.R., Ayars, J.E., Peters, M.S., Vail, S.S., Covarrubias, J., Nevarez, A., 1999. Cotton root system in a clay loam soil: effects of growth stage, irrigation and nitrogen treatment. Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference 1999, 637-640.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake, K.D., Kerby, T.A., 1996b. Preparation for the new crop season - fall/winter. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 6-14.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996c. Preplant-spring. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 15-20.
Johnson Hake, S., Hake K.D., Kerby T.A., 1996d. Prebloom decisions. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 29-50.
López, M., de Castro, A., Gutiérrez, J.C., and Leidi, E.O., 2010. Nitrate and potassium concentrations in cotton petiole extracts as influenced by nitrogen fertilization, sampling date and cultivar. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 8, 202-209.
Marsh, B., Pettygrove, S., Southard, R., Roberts, B., Munk, D., Vargas, R., Hutmacher, B., 2003. Soil and plant sampling: key to potassium management. California Cotton Review 66, 8-9.
Miller, R., Weir, B., Vargas, R., Wright, S., Travis, B., Roberts, B., Rains, B., Munk, D., Munier, D., and Kerby, M., 1996. Cotton potassium fertility guidelines for the San Joaquin Valley of California. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 21562.
Oosterhuis, D.M. 2002. Potassium management of cotton. In: Pasricha, N.S., Bansal, S.K. (Eds.) Potassium for Sustainable Crop Production. International Potash Institute, Basel, Switzerland and Potash Research Institute of India, Gurgaon, Haryana. pp. 321-346.
Pettygrove, G.S., Southard, R.J., 2003. Can we predict K fixation in the San Joaquin Valley from soil texture and mineralogy? FREP Final Report.
Reddy, K.R., Hodges, H.F., Varco, J., 2000. Potassium nutrition of cotton. Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Bulletin 1049.
Rochester, I.J., 2010. Phosphorus and potassium nutrition of cotton: interaction with sodium. Crop and Pasture Science 61, 825-834.
Sabbe, W.E., Zelinski, L.J., 1990. Plant analysis as an aid in fertilizing cotton. In: Westerman, R.L. (Ed.). Soil Testing and Plant Analysis. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI. pp. 469-493.
Stromberg, K., 1960. Need for potassium fertilizer on cotton determined by leaf and soil analyses. California Agriculture 14, 4-5.
Weir, B.L., Kerby, T.A., Hake, K.D., Roberts, B.A., Zelinski, L.J., 1996. Cotton fertility. In: Hake, S.J., Kerby T.A., Hake, K.D. (Eds.) Cotton Production Manual. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3352. pp. 210-227.

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Nitrogen (N)

Cotton Nitrogen Nutrition

Deficiency Symptoms

Excessive Nitrogen

Soil Test

Soil Nitrate Test